Beginner's guide to UK academia

1.1 What does this guide cover?

Academia in the UK can be difficult to navigate. Its structures, terminology, funding systems, and career pathways are often complex, and much of the knowledge needed to understand them is rarely brought together in a single place.

This guide explains how academia works in the United Kingdom. It aims to demystify the UK’s academic landscape by providing accessible, practical information on topics including how universities are organised and governed, how teaching and research are funded and assessed, the roles and career pathways available within academia, and what you need to know about working and living in the UK. The guide takes a no-assumed-knowledge approach and is designed for readers who are unfamiliar with the UK higher education system. If you have never worked or studied in a UK university, nothing in this guide will assume prior knowledge of how the sector operates. The guide covers all four UK nations. Education is a devolved matter, meaning policies, funding arrangements, and education systems can differ across England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Rather than treating one nation as the default, we have sought to reflect the diversity of the UK’s academic landscape and have drawn on expertise from contributors based across all four nations. 

You do not need to read the guide from start to finish. Each section can be used independently, and the glossary explains key terms and acronyms you may encounter along the way.  

We hope it will serve as a useful starting point whenever you have questions about UK academia.

1.2 Who is this guide for?

This guide is for anyone seeking to understand or navigate UK academia. It was originally developed by the UK Young Academy’s At-Risk Scholars and Professionals project team to support at-risk scholars as they establish their careers in the UK. At-risk scholars are individuals whose education, research, professional work, or careers are threatened or disrupted by conflict, persecution, displacement, or restrictions on academic freedom. Many at-risk scholars arrive in the UK with significant expertise and experience, but forced displacement and/or exile can interrupt professional networks, access to institutional knowledge, and familiarity with academic systems and processes. Developed with input from individuals with lived experience of displacement and relocation, this guide combines introductory guidance with signposting to specialist resources that can help readers build confidence and navigate an unfamiliar academic environment. 

While originally developed with at-risk scholars in mind, the guide may also be useful to: 

• Students and recent graduates considering an academic career,

• Researchers and academics who are new to the UK higher education system,

• Professional services and administrative staff working in higher education,

• Policymakers, charities, and public sector organisations working with researchers and universities,

• Businesses and organisations collaborating with universities and academic experts,

• People moving into academia from industry, government, or the third sector,

• Anyone who is the first in their family or community to work in a university setting.

By making academic terminology, structures, processes, and expectations more accessible, the guide aims to help readers build confidence, make informed decisions, and navigate UK academia more effectively. 

1.3 Who wrote this guide?

This guide was developed by the UK Young Academy’s At-Risk Scholars and Professionals project team. Contributors and consultees include at-risk scholars who have themselves relocated to the UK and navigated many of the systems, processes, and challenges described throughout the guide. 

The At-Risk Scholars and Professionals project connects scholars and professionals whose careers have been disrupted by conflict, displacement or persecution with resources, opportunities and support through the UK Young Academy. We are grateful to the at-risk scholars, UK Young Academy members and external reviewers who generously shared their expertise, experiences and insights during the development of this resource.

We would like to extend particular thanks to Anthony Kevins who led the development and coordination of the guide and whose commitment and leadership were instrumental in bringing this resource to fruition.

With special thanks to our members:

• Ana Blanco Alvarez
• Nesrin Alrefaai
• Igor Chernyavsky
• Sivaneswary Genapathy
• Rebecca Killick
• Chi Ying Lam
• Hasan Maridi
• Linda Oyama
• Amit Pujari
• Sandeep Sandhu
• Fatemeh Shahbazi
• Amy Vincent
• Catarina Vicente
• Fiona Walport

1.4 How does this guide relate to other resources?

This guide is intended as an introduction to UK academia. It sits alongside similar guides from fellow national young academies, including A Beginner’s Guide to Dutch Academia from De Jonge Akademie and A Beginner’s Guide to Swedish Academia from Sveriges unga akademi, both of which directly inspired the development of this guide. 

It also complements the many specialist resources and services available elsewhere in the UK that help individuals navigate the academic landscape. 

For detailed guidance on specific topics, we encourage readers to consult these resources directly. 

2.1 Working in UK academia

PhDs and doctoral study

A doctoral degree (e.g., PhD, EngD) is the primary entry point into an academic career in the UK. UK PhDs typically last three to four years and are research-focused. In some countries, PhD students are considered employees with full salaries and benefits, but in the UK, they are classified as students. This means they do not have employment rights such as pensions, national insurance contributions, paid leave, and formal contracts. They may receive a stipend, however, if their PhD is funded by a research funder or an organisation. Doctoral study is funded through UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) studentships or funding available through the relevant funding body in the four UK nations (England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland). PhDs can also be funded through university scholarships or external grants. Some students self-fund their research, which can create financial strain.

Postdoctoral careers

After completing a PhD, graduates can then apply for post-doctoral (postdoc) contracts with a research group or as part of an individual fellowship. These often consist of multiple short-term contracts before it is possible to secure a permanent role. Many early-career researchers experience uncertainty associated with short-term or fixed-term contracts.

It is important to plan beyond doctoral study, identifying funding opportunities and potential career pathways early when considering a PhD as a route into UK academia. 

The Prospects website provides useful information about getting an academic job in the UK.

Academic careers are only one possible destination following doctoral study, and many researchers move successfully into industry, policy, government, charities, and other professional sectors.

Read more about transitioning to a job outside of academic research in Section 8: How do academic recruitment and career progression work in the UK?

Typical academic responsibilities

Academic roles involve a combination of: 

• Teaching (lectures, seminars, course design),
• Research (data analysis, publications, funding applications),
• Supervision (mentoring undergraduate and postgraduate students),
• Administrative work (exam marking, committees, university governance). 

Academic staff also engage in public engagement, conference presentations, and pastoral care for students.

Read more about career progression in academia in Section 7: What are the pathways and roles in UK academia?

Further and higher education

In the UK, education after secondary school is divided into further education and higher education.

Further education

• Further education is study that is not part of a university degree. It provides training to develop skills and technical qualifications needed for a career. But it can also include foundation learning courses designed to prepare students for higher education or employment. 
  • Examples of further education qualifications include A levels, Scottish Highers, the International Baccalaureate (IB), and vocational qualifications such as Business and Technology Education Council (BTEC) qualifications and National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs)
  • Further education is usually offered by colleges, independent training providers, and some specialist institutions.

Higher education

• Higher education involves study towards a degree or certain diplomas. Undergraduate and postgraduate courses are offered by universities and other higher education institutions, such as art schools.  
  • Examples of higher education qualifications include bachelor’s degrees, master’s degrees, and doctoral degrees. These usually have a focus on academic and professional development. 

The UK’s qualification framework offers the ability to progress between further education and higher education. Education is a devolved power: England, Wales, and Northern Ireland follow similar qualification levels, while Scotland operates under the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF). A particular feature of Northern Ireland is its unique cross-border links with Ireland, which can influence qualification recognition and progression opportunities.

Read more about devolution and education in Section 3: How does funding and regulation work in UK academia?

2.2 The university system: pre- and post-1992 institutions

Universities in the UK are often grouped. For example, the Russell Group is an association of 24 leading, research-intensive public universities in the UK.

UK Universities are also often grouped by when they were established – either pre-1992 or post-1992.

These groups relate to a piece of legislation known as the Further and Higher Education Act 1992. This granted full university status to a type of education institution known as polytechnics. The Act gave them the right to award degrees independently. The distinction between the two groups still affects research funding, teaching priorities, and institutional missions.

Pre-1992 universities

These universities include: 

• Ancient universities, such as the University of Oxford, University of St Andrews, University of Cambridge, and University of Glasgow, which date back centuries. 
• Red brick universities, established in the 19th and early 20th centuries, such as the University of Birmingham and University of Manchester. 
• Plate glass universities, founded in the 1960s as higher education expanded, such as the University of Warwick and University of York. 

These institutions tend to be research-intensive and attract significant research funding. They often receive the largest share of government funding through the Research Excellence Framework (REF), which is the UK’s system for assessing the quality of research.

Learn more about the Research Excellence Framework (REF) in Section 6: What is the long-term picture in UK higher education and research policy?

Post-1992 universities

These universities include: 

• Former polytechnics that in the past focused on vocational and technical education. They were mainly teaching-focused. Examples include Sheffield Hallam University (formerly Sheffield Polytechnic), Manchester Metropolitan University (formerly Manchester Polytechnic), and Liverpool John Moores University (formerly Liverpool Polytechnic). 
• Former Central Institutions that formed in Scotland to provide higher education. Most were teaching-focused and provided similar courses to polytechnics while others were more specialised colleges of art or music. Examples include Edinburgh Napier University (formerly Napier Polytechnic) and Abertay University (formerly Dundee Institute of Technology). 
• Colleges and institutes that were neither polytechnics nor Central Institutions. Examples include Falmouth University (formerly Falmouth College of Arts) and Bath Spa University (formerly Bath College of Higher Education). 

Many of these post-1992 universities have expanded their research activities. But pre-1992 universities continue to receive a larger share of research funding and competitive grants.  

Government analysis also shows that post-1992 universities offer higher education that is more accessible to a wider selection of people. But earnings for graduates from post-1992 universities are slightly lower than those from pre-1992 institutions.  

Key differences in pre- and post-1992 universities

While these historical distinctions remain relevant, the sector is reshaping due to inter-institutional collaboration and changes in funding models. 

2.3 University governance and decision-making in UK academia

UK universities are run in a way that balances strategic oversight, academic leadership, and operational management.  

While institutions may vary, most universities have the structure outlined below.

1. Governing body – University Council, Board of Governors, or University Court

The University Council, Board of Governors, or University Court is the highest decision-making authority and the governing body for the institution. 

• Responsibilities: approving strategic plans, ensuring financial sustainability, upholding legal compliance, and appointing senior leadership. 
• Composition: typically includes external members (business leaders, policymakers, or alumni), senior academic and administrative staff, and student representatives. 

2. Chancellor

The Chancellor is the ceremonial head of the university and is often a prominent public figure or distinguished graduate.

• Responsibilities: acting as an ambassador for the institution, presiding over graduation ceremonies, and supporting external engagement and fundraising activities.
• Note: the Chancellor does not usually have responsibility for the day-to-day running of the university. This role is carried out by the Vice-Chancellor (or Principal and Vice-Chancellor in some institutions).

3. Executive leadership – Principal/Vice-Chancellor and senior management

The Principal or Vice-Chancellor (VC) serves as the chief executive and academic leader. 

• Responsibilities: overseeing institutional operations, external representation, and strategic planning. 

• Supported by: 
  • Pro-Vice-Principal/ Pro-Vice-Chancellors (PVPs/PVCs) who are responsible for certain areas of the university’s work such as research, teaching, or expanding its international reach. 
  • Registrar or Chief Operating Officer (COO) who manages administrative services and compliance. 

4. Academic governance – Senate or Academic Board

The Senate (or Academic Board) is the highest academic authority, overseeing academic policy, academic programme approval, and research strategy. 

• Responsibilities: maintaining academic standards, managing degree regulations, and ensuring research quality. 

• Composition: includes the Vice-Chancellor, Deans (see below for details on their role), Heads of Departments, elected academic staff, and student representatives. 

5. Faculty and departmental leadership

Universities are divided into faculties, schools, or departments, each with its own governance structure. Some universities may use different terminology to describe this organisation.  

• Faculty level: led by a Dean, with a Faculty Board managing teaching, research, and resource allocation. 

• School level: led by a Head of School, these focus on a specific set of subjects but tend to be larger than departments. Not all universities organise themselves into schools. 

• Department level: led by a Head of Department, supported by committees overseeing the curriculum, student affairs, and research activities. 

Some universities also have additional levels of organisation within departments and across departments that group into Research Centres and Research Institutes. 

• Research Centre: led by a Director, these bring together groups of researchers who focus on a significant common, flagship area of research. 

• Research Institute: led by a Director, these are established to advance research in a particular field alongside a specific funder or multiple funders and universities.  

6. Human Resources (HR) and research offices

Professional services teams support staff throughout their employment and research careers. These teams help staff navigate university processes, access funding, and meet institutional requirements.

• Human Resources (HR): manages recruitment, contracts, pay, workplace policies, staff wellbeing, and visa support where applicable.
• Research offices: support researchers with funding applications, research management, contracts, ethics, and research impact activities.

7. Student representation

Students influence decision-making through: 

• Students’ Unions (SUs), which represent student interests.
• Student representatives sitting on key governance bodies such as the Council or Senate.
• National student organisations, such as the National Union of Students (NUS), engaging in sector-wide policy discussions. 

8. External oversight and regulation

UK universities operate within a regulated higher education system, but education is a devolved issue, so England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland each have their own education systems. 

Oversight can differ from nation to nation, but is overseen by bodies including: 

• Office for Students (OfS): the regulator for higher education in England. Ensures quality, access, and financial regulation. Also runs the Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF), which assesses the quality of teaching at universities. 

• Quality Assurance Agency (QAA): monitors academic standards. 

• UK Research and Innovation (UKRI): regulates and funds research activities. 

• Most universities are also charitable institutions and subject to regulation by the Charity Commission (England and Wales) and OSCR (Scotland). 
• National funding councils: 
  • Research England oversees funding of higher education providers in England.
  • Medr oversees the entire tertiary sector in Wales, combining funding, oversight, and strategic regulation. 
  • Scottish Funding Council (SFC) oversees funding of higher education in Scotland. 
  • The Department for the Economy (DfE NI) oversees funding of higher education in Northern Ireland.  

This governance structure ensures that universities can operate independently while maintaining accountability, academic integrity, and student representation.

Read more about how devolution impacts funding and regulation in Section 3: How does funding and regulation work in UK academia?

2.4 University rankings and league tables

Rankings and league tables highlight the competitive nature of UK academia. They also impact institutional strategy and reputation. 

Universities are ranked in national and international league tables based on research quality, teaching standards, and student satisfaction. 

Key ranking systems

• The Times and Sunday Times Good University Guide (UK-focused),
• The Guardian University Rankings (emphasises teaching quality and student satisfaction),
• The QS World University Rankings, 
• Times Higher Education (THE) Rankings (global league tables based on research and reputation).  

Rankings influence student recruitment, funding opportunities, and international partnerships, making them a key strategic focus for universities. 

Academic freedom, autonomy, and institutional policies

• Autonomy in research and teaching: UK academics generally have freedom to choose their research topics and methodologies. But funding priorities and institutional research strategies influence which areas receive investment. 

• Ethical oversight: research involving human subjects, animals, or sensitive data requires approval from university ethics committees. 

• Impact of the Research Excellence Framework and Teaching Excellence Framework on academic autonomy: while UK academics have freedom in research, universities prioritise REF-aligned research outputs and teaching staff must align with TEF quality standards. 

Read more about the Research Excellence Framework and the Teaching Excellence Framework in Section 6: What is the long-term picture in UK higher education and research policy?

2.5 Industry engagement, interdisciplinary research, and collaboration networks

UK academia places increasing emphasis on: 

• collaboration across disciplines,  

• industry engagement,  

• the impact research has on wider society and the economy.

This is to encourage academics to work beyond traditional departmental boundaries.

Interdisciplinary research and collaboration

• Many universities host cross-disciplinary research centres and institutes, bringing together researchers from different fields to address complex challenges such as climate change, artificial intelligence, and global health. 

• Collaborative research funding is promoted through UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) and other grant providers. Priority is often given to multi-institution, interdisciplinary projects. 

• International partnerships are key to UK academia, with universities collaborating on global research initiatives, including European Union (EU)-funded projects (Horizon Europe), UK–United States (US) collaborations, and Commonwealth research networks. 

Industry engagement and knowledge exchange

• Knowledge Transfer Partnerships (KTPs) enable academics to apply research findings in industry settings, bridging gaps between academia and business. 

• Commercialisation of research is encouraged through spin-out companies, patent applications, and consultancy work. Many universities have dedicated enterprise offices to support academics in developing commercial projects. 

• Public engagement and policy impact are increasingly prioritised. Researchers contribute to government policy, public science communication, and media discussions to ensure that research benefits wider society. 

2.6 Trade unions

Trade unions represent workers’ interests across various industries. They offer support on employment rights and workplace issues, negotiate staff working terms and conditions, and provide continuing professional development training. Joining a union can provide valuable assistance should you face any issues in the workplace. They also strengthen the collective bargaining power of staff.

The University and College Union (UCU) represents most research and teaching staff at UK universities, while technical staff may be represented by another union at your university (e.g. Unite, UNISON). Although not classed as employees, PhD students can join and be represented by a union in the UK (usually the UCU). Many universities may also have Students’ Unions that represent student interests and provide support, advice, and opportunities to get involved in the wider university community.

2.7 Additional resources

General

Further education

Higher education

3.1 Education funding and regulation

The structure of academia in the UK can be complex, especially for those new to the system.  

Higher education and research are shaped by multiple organisations, each with its own responsibilities. Understanding who does what is crucial for early-career researchers.

This section outlines the key institutions that influence academic life in the UK and their roles in shaping research, innovation, and education.

Devolution

The UK is composed of four nations: England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. 

The four nations have different degrees of autonomy, government structures, identities, and priorities. Their relationships with international organisations may also differ. 

These differences are partly the result of devolution, through which powers are transferred from the UK Parliament to the governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland in certain policy areas.

This leads to very diverse local contexts that affect universities and employers. 

Examples of this include:  

• In Wales, universities follow the Welsh Language Standards, a legal framework that requires that Welsh be used in a way that is no less favourable than English. Those wishing to work or study in a Welsh institution do not need to be able to speak Welsh, but a basic level of proficiency and a willingness to learn are desirable in a candidate. 

• Northern Ireland has a unique relationship with the Republic of Ireland and the European Union that does not apply to other nations.

• In Scotland, eligible Scottish-domiciled students do not pay undergraduate tuition fees. Funding is provided by Student Awards Agency Scotland (SAAS). 

Education is a devolved issue, so England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland each have their own education systems. 

Learn more about education systems across the UK in Section 9: How can I navigate working and living in the UK?

The devolved nations’ funding and regulatory structures

3.2 Research funding and support

Beyond education policy, the UK has a well-established system for funding and supporting research and innovation.  

The Department for Business, Innovation, Science and Trade (BIST) sets the strategic direction, while UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) and its constituent research councils provide the majority of funding for researchers across disciplines through grants.  

Learned societies also play a vital role in fostering academic communities, offering funding opportunities, and influencing policy.  

Understanding these organisations is key to navigating research careers in the UK.

UK Research and Innovation (UKRI)

UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the BIST. It is the main government umbrella body that distributes public funds.

UKRI was established in 2018 with the aim of increasing cross-disciplinary research. It is made up of seven research councils, alongside Innovate UK and Research England.  Research funding through UKRI operates UK-wide. However, core funding for higher and further education institutions is devolved, meaning each nation manages this separately, as described above.

These research councils are among the main public funders of academic research in the UK.

The seven research councils

Innovate UK and Research England

Other major sources of research funding

While UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) is the largest public funder of research and innovation, researchers may also receive funding from government departments and agencies, national academies, charities, learned societies, industry partners, and international funders. The availability of funding varies by discipline, career stage, location, and research area.

You can find more details on funding your research in Section 5: How do I pay for my research?

For an extensive list of funding available to early career researchers in the UK, explore EURAXESS UK’s online resource.

3.3 Learned societies and national academies in the UK

In the UK, there are many organisations dedicated to advancing knowledge and expertise in specific academic or professional fields. These range from national academies to learned societies and specialised bodies, each playing a distinct role in supporting research, education, and professional standards.

• National academies are a country’s premier, nationally recognised organisations. They coordinate research standards, advise government on public policy, and represent scholarly excellence at a national level. In the UK and Ireland, there are seven such national senior academies, each supporting research, promoting education, and facilitating collaboration among experts through conferences, publications, and networking opportunities.
• Learned societies are professional or academic associations that promote, fund, and share research within a specific discipline or group of related subjects.
• Specialised academies focus on distinct, cross-disciplinary, or emerging professional domains that fall outside the senior national academies, such as the Academy of Mathematical Sciences, Academy of Social Sciences, and the Royal Academy of Dance.

Across all three types, many also offer advice to policymakers, set professional standards, and provide grants or awards to support early-career researchers. Many may also provide grants, fellowships, travel awards, and career development opportunities.

HM Revenue & Customs holds a list of approved learned societies and professional organisations.

The seven senior national academies are:

• The Academy of Medical Sciences: The UK’s national academy for biomedical and health sciences.  
• The British Academy: The UK’s national academy for the humanities and social sciences. 
• The Learned Society of Wales: The national academy for sciences, arts, and humanities in Wales. 
• The Royal Academy of Engineering: The UK’s national academy for engineering and technology innovation. 
• The Royal Irish Academy: The all-island academy for the sciences and humanities.
• The Royal Society: The UK’s independent scientific academy.
• The Royal Society of Edinburgh: Scotland’s national academy with a multidisciplinary fellowship.

The UK Young Academy

The UK Young Academy launched in 2022 as a joint initiative of the UK and Ireland’s seven senior national academies. Each academy already engaged early-career researchers in its own way, but no single UK-wide organisation did so independently. In a first for an initiative of this scale, the seven partner academies came together to establish a Young Academy covering the whole of the UK. The UK Young Academy is also part of a growing global network of Young Academies who share knowledge, support one another, and work on international projects. There are currently over 60 other national young academies around the world.

The UK Young Academy operates under the operational auspices of the Royal Society, and it retains its independence across its activities. It continues to work with the partner academies and other stakeholders on relevant programmes.

3.4 Charities and funding

Charity organisations can be places to create strong networks and may provide funding opportunities for research. You can also work alongside people in your industry on committees and learn about available opportunities in a friendly environment. Some of the most prominent of these in the UK are listed below. 

Many charities fund research, fellowships, networking opportunities, and career development. Some operate across a wide range of disciplines, while others focus on specific topics such as health, education, heritage, or environmental research.

Examples of major charitable research funders include:

• Leverhulme Trust 
• Wellcome
• Cancer Research UK 
• British Heart Foundation
• Nuffield Foundation
• Wolfson Foundation

For an extensive list of funding available to early career researchers in the UK, explore EURAXESS UK’s online resource.

4.1 Programmes

There are several different levels of qualification that can be obtained by studying at UK universities.  

We include a brief overview of the most common degrees below.

For further details, UCAS (the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service), which operates the undergraduate application admissions portal, offers detailed information and additional options (e.g., degree apprenticeships). 

1. Undergraduate degrees

These are the first level of academic qualification that can be obtained at universities in the UK. They take three different forms:  

• Bachelor’s degrees:  These are the most common undergraduate qualifications. They typically last three to five years. Depending on the subjects being studied, graduates usually receive either a Bachelor of Arts (BA), Bachelor of Science (BSc), Bachelor of Engineering (BEng), or a Bachelor of Laws (LLB).  
  • Less commonly, these programmes can also be called MA degrees – for example, at the University of Glasgow – though they are still considered undergraduate qualifications.  
• Foundation degrees: These two-year programmes combine academic study with workplace learning. They provide a pathway to a full bachelor’s degree. 

• Higher National Certificates (HNCs) and Higher National Diplomas (HNDs): These are vocational qualifications that can lead directly to employment or further study. An HNC typically takes one year full-time, while an HND takes two years. 

2. Integrated master’s degrees

An integrated master’s degree is an extended undergraduate course that brings you up to a master’s qualification. They usually last four years. Examples include Master of Engineering (MEng) and Master of Science (MSci).  

3. Postgraduate degrees

These qualifications are only available to those who have already obtained an undergraduate degree.  

• Master’s degrees: These typically require one year of full-time study after obtaining an undergraduate degree. These postgraduate qualifications include a Master of Arts (MA), Master of Philosophy (MPhil), Master of Research (MRes), Master of Science (MSc), and Master of Business Administration (MBA). 

• Doctoral degrees: These are the highest level of academic qualification, including Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) and professional doctorates like Doctor of Education (EdD). These programmes involve original research and usually take three to four years to complete.  

4. Other qualifications

• Diplomas and certificates: Postgraduate certificates (PGCert) and diplomas (PGDip) offer advanced study without the commitment of a full master’s programme.  

• Professional qualifications: Specialised programmes designed to meet the standards of professional bodies, often necessary for careers in fields like accounting, law, and teaching. 

Key links

Additional links

4.2 The grading system at UK universities

The grading system at UK universities assesses and classifies students’ academic performance. Understanding how this system works can help you interpret academic results and what they mean for further study or employment. The different grading classifications are listed below.

1. Degree classification

UK undergraduate degrees are typically awarded with the following classifications: 

2. Postgraduate grading

For master’s degrees, the grading system differs slightly and is awarded with the following classifications:  

Key links

Example

4.3 Assessment methods

Universities employ various assessment methods, including: 

4.4 Teaching formats at UK universities

Teaching at UK universities can take several forms, such as:  

Key links

4.5 Teaching loads and research allocations at UK universities

Academic staff will typically divide their time between teaching and research.  

Teaching loads 

Standard teaching hours 

Lecturers typically deliver between six and 12 hours of teaching per week during term time. This includes lectures, seminars, tutorials, and, in some cases, laboratory supervision. The teaching load is higher in post-1992 universities (teaching-focused) than in pre-1992 universities (research-intensive). 

Learn more about different types of universities in the UK in Section 2: The big picture: how does it all work and who’s who?

Administrative and student support 

Teaching responsibilities also include preparing materials, grading assignments, and meeting with students (e.g., office hours). On average, 30 to 40% of a lecturer’s workload may be allocated to teaching and related duties. 

Research allocations

Research time

At research-intensive institutions, lecturers often dedicate 40-60% of their time to research, including conducting studies, publishing academic papers, and applying for grants. At teaching-focused institutions, this is typically lower, around 20-30%. 

Expectations 

Lecturers are generally expected to produce one to three high-quality publications per year in research-intensive institutions. Time for research is also dependent on external grant funding and departmental priorities. 

Workload models 

Academic Workload Allocation Models (WAMs)

Universities use WAMs to allocate time for teaching, research, and administrative tasks. 

A standard academic year is 1,600–1,800 working hours, with a typical split of: 

• 40% teaching 
• 40% research 
• 20% administration/service 

Variation across institutions 

Some universities may allow for buyout of teaching or administrative time if you receive certain types of research grants. There is also a broad distinction between two types of universities, especially in England: 

• Pre-1992 universities: research is prioritised, with lighter teaching loads. 

• Post-1992 universities: heavier teaching loads with less time allocated for research.

4.6 Additional resources 

Research at UK universities is often supported by external funding. Researchers regularly apply for grants, fellowships, studentships, and other funding opportunities throughout their careers.

Funding may come from organisations within the UK or from international funders. The opportunities available will depend on your discipline, career stage, institution, and research area. You can find the main sources of research funding in the UK listed further down this page.  

The majority of these are available to non-UK national applicants who are working at UK institutions. It is critical to familiarise yourself with the strategic priorities of funders. In some cases, informal feedback on the initial draft application for funding can also be obtained from the funder.

This section provides an introduction to the UK research funding landscape and highlights some of the main funding bodies and sources of support available to researchers. It is intended as a starting point only and does not provide a comprehensive overview of all funding opportunities, schemes, or funders.

For an extensive list of funding opportunities for early career researchers in the UK, explore EURAXESS UK’s online resource.

5.1 Funding for PhD students

Funding for PhD students is available through a variety of schemes, including university departments or faculties, studentships (otherwise known as PhD scholarships), and Centres for Doctoral Training (often abbreviated as CDTs or DTCs). Departmental and faculty schemes are funded locally by universities themselves, whereas CDTs and DTCs are typically funded through block grants awarded by UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) to universities or university consortia, often with additional support from partner organisations. 

If you are currently working at a university, they will often have staff – sometimes called Research Officers, Proposal Development Officers, or Fund Development Officers – who can provide additional details on funding sources.

5.2 Research funding landscape

Research funding in the UK comes from a range of sources, including public funders, charities, learned societies, national academies, industry partners, and international organisations. The opportunities available will depend on your discipline, career stage, institution, and research area.

The largest public research funder is UK Research and Innovation (UKRI), which supports research and innovation across the whole of the UK through seven research councils, Innovate UK, and Research England. Other major funders include the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR), charitable organisations such as Wellcome, and national academies including The Royal Society, the British Academy, and the Academy of Medical Sciences.

UKRI provides free training resources and guidance on preparing a successful application on its website.  

You can use UKRI’s online funding finder to get information about the recent calls for funding applications in your field. 

An overview of the UK’s research funding landscape, including major funders and other key organisations, can be found in Section 3: How does funding and regulation work in UK academia?

5.3 International funding

Researchers based in UK institutions may also be eligible to apply for funding from international organisations, depending on the scheme and eligibility criteria. Some examples of sources of funding from outside the UK are listed below: 

5.4 Examples of early-career fellowships and awards

For an extensive list of funding opportunities for early career researchers in the UK, explore EURAXESS UK’s online resource.

5.5 Resources for writing grant and fellowship applications

If you are currently based at a UK university, it will be helpful to engage early with a Research Officer. Research Officers are employed by universities to assist with research grants, support academic staff, and strengthen the competitiveness of institutions when it comes to funding. 

Think about the cost of the resources needed for your research and the steps for the internal approval process to ensure you can comfortably meet deadlines. 

Here are some guides that can help: 

• Secrets to writing a winning grant – Nature (December 2019) 

• How to design a winning fellowship proposal – Nature (November 2018) 

• What to do when your grant is rejected – Nature (February 2020) 

• Addressing rigour and reproducibility in grant proposals – Nature (August 2021)  

When applying, always check the funder guidance to ensure you provide all required documents in the correct format and meet any eligibility requirements.

6.1 Assessments of excellence in academia: REF and TEF

The Research Excellence Framework (REF) and the Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF) are two key assessment exercises in UK academia. They are used to evaluate universities’ performance in research and teaching. It is crucial to familiarise yourself with the REF and the TEF if you are planning to join UK academia as an academic staff member. These are important in shaping university priorities, funding allocations, and institutional strategies. They also influence university rankings and institutional reputation. They frequently feature in academic job interviews, particularly for lectureships and permanent positions. 

6.2 Research Excellence Framework (REF)

The Research Excellence Framework (REF) is a periodic assessment of the quality of research conducted by UK higher education institutions (HEIs). It is conducted by the UK’s higher education funding bodies (such as Research England). The process involves expert reviews that are carried out by panels focused on subject-based units of assessment (UoAs). These take place under the guidance of overarching main panels and advisory panels. 

The purpose of the REF is: 

• To inform the allocation of block-grant research funding to higher education institutions based on research quality. 

• To provide accountability for public investment in research and produce evidence of the benefits of this investment. 

• To provide insights into the state of research in higher education institutions in the UK. 

The REF evaluates institutions based on three main criteria: 

• Research outputs – the quality of published research (e.g., journal articles and books). 

• Impact – the wider societal and economic impact of research beyond academia. 

• Environment – the research culture, infrastructure, and support for research activity. 

The REF results help determine funding distribution and shape universities’ reputations in research.  

It takes place approximately every six to seven years, with the last exercise conducted in 2021. The next REF is provisionally scheduled for 2029. 

You can explore the results of the REF (2021) on the REF website to see how institutions and disciplines performed across outputs, impact, and research environment.

6.3 Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF)

The Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF) assesses the quality of teaching at UK universities and higher education providers. It is overseen by the Office for Students (OfS). It aims to inform students about teaching standards and to encourage excellence in education. Universities and colleges that take part in the TEF receive an overall rating as well as two underpinning ratings: one for the student experience and one for graduate outcomes, such as employment rates and earnings. The ratings reflect how effectively a university or college delivers a positive experience and successful outcomes for its undergraduate students across all undergraduate courses and subjects. 

Institutions are rated gold, silver, or bronze based on various criteria, including: 

• Student satisfaction – measured through the National Student Survey (NSS). 

• Student outcomes – employment rates and continuation rates. 

• Learning environment – institutional support for teaching and learning. 

Unlike the REF, which is directly linked to research funding, the TEF serves as an indicator of teaching quality and may influence student recruitment.  

The most recent TEF exercise was completed in 2023 and included ratings for both student experience and student outcomes. The results of TEF 2023 are available on the TEF website.

6.4 Why REF and TEF matter for academics and postdocs

REF and your research career

Universities are highly invested in REF performance, as it determines how much government research funding they receive. Academics in research-intensive institutions are expected to contribute towards the REF through high-quality publications, securing grants and demonstrating societal impact. Many career pathways prioritise REF-related research, making publications and grant success essential for advancement. UK universities often encourage research activity over teaching, with promotions prioritising REF-based research metrics. However, the TEF has increased institutional focus on teaching quality.

When applying for an academic position, and throughout your academic career, universities may assess how your research aligns with REF expectations. REF-related activities, including research outputs, grant funding, research impact, and contributions to the research environment, can influence probation, promotion, and career progression.

This can include: 

• The quality and impact of your publications. 

• Your ability to secure funding and conduct impactful research. 

• Your contribution to research culture and environment. 

You may be asked how your research fits into the REF or how you would contribute to the next REF cycle.

The TEF and teaching expectations

Even if your primary focus is research, most UK academic positions require some level of teaching. The TEF evaluates teaching quality, student satisfaction, and graduate outcomes. Academics in teaching-intensive roles are increasingly evaluated on teaching innovation, student engagement, and education research. 

Teaching performance may also form part of probation and promotion criteria, particularly in teaching-focused or balanced academic roles.

It is voluntary in Scotland and Northern Ireland, but binding in England and Wales. 

In interviews, you may be asked: 

• How do you ensure high-quality teaching and student engagement? 

• Whether you have/plan to obtain a teaching qualification (e.g., FHEA, PGCert). 

• How you design assessments or improve student outcomes. 

• How you would contribute to a department’s TEF strategy. 

Demonstrating awareness in interviews

Hiring committees value candidates who understand the broader academic landscape. For research-focused roles, demonstrating awareness of the REF helps to show that you are prepared to produce high-quality, high-impact research. 

For teaching-heavy or balanced roles, knowledge of the TEF – and learning outcomes from accrediting bodies, if applicable (e.g., in engineering) – helps demonstrate that you understand teaching excellence and student outcomes. Being able to articulate how your work contributes to a department’s REF/TEF strategy will make you a stronger candidate.

How to prepare?

• Read the REF and TEF reports from the university or department you are applying to. 

• Look at past REF submissions in your field to understand expectations. 

• Think about your research impact – how could it be measured beyond academia? 

• Reflect on your teaching approach – how do you engage students and ensure high learning outcomes? 

Understanding the REF and TEF is not just about securing funding and recognition for institutions. These frameworks influence how academic performance is assessed throughout a career, including recruitment, probation, promotion, and progression. Demonstrating awareness of them can help you understand institutional expectations and navigate an academic career in the UK.

More information on preparing for interviews and the hiring process for academic roles in the UK is available in Section 8: How do academic recruitment and career progression work in the UK?

6.5 Knowledge Exchange Framework (KEF)

Universities are also judged on their knowledge exchange activities and performance. Knowledge exchange is the wide range of activities higher education providers undertake with external partners. These external partners can include businesses, the NHS, government, charities, and community groups. 

The Knowledge Exchange Framework (KEF) provides a range of information on the knowledge exchange activities of higher education providers in England. You can use the KEF to explore the different ways they work with their external partners for the benefit of the economy and society.

6.6 Government research policy

Please note this section was last reviewed in Autumn 2026 and is subject to change.

Research and innovation policy in the UK evolves over time and may change following elections, new government priorities, spending reviews, or major national and international developments. While the specific priorities and programmes described below reflect the policy landscape at the time of writing, the overarching themes of investment in research, innovation, skills, collaboration, and economic growth have remained broadly consistent across successive governments.

Research in the UK is heavily influenced by government policy, which shapes funding priorities, institutional strategies, and long-term career prospects for academics. Policies governing research funding, university-industry collaboration, and international partnerships directly impact the opportunities available to researchers at all career stages. UK government research and innovation policy outlines how policymakers intend to foster a thriving research and innovation ecosystem that supports economic growth, societal wellbeing, and global competitiveness.

Below is a summary of key factors that influence UK government research and innovation policy, together with an overview of how they affect the research environment in UK universities.

The examples below focus primarily on UK-wide policy, but readers should be aware that Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland may have additional policies, strategies, and funding priorities that shape their research and higher education systems.

Learn more about the devolved nations’ funding and regulatory structures in Section 3: How does funding and regulation work in UK academia?

The UK government frequently updates its research agenda to align with national economic goals, global challenges, and emerging technologies. 

The examples above illustrate areas that have received policy attention in recent years. Specific priorities, programmes, and terminology may vary between UK governments and the devolved administrations of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

While specific funding programmes and strategic objectives can vary between governments, understanding changes in policy is essential for anyone considering a long-term career in UK academia. Government priorities can determine which areas receive investment, how research is assessed, and what expectations are placed on universities and researchers alike.

6.7 UK Science and Technology Framework’s top sectors

The UK Government has identified several key industrial and research sectors that drive economic growth and innovation. The Science and Technology Framework outlines five critical sectors for the UK (as of April 2025): 

• Artificial Intelligence (AI): technology that enables computers to perform tasks normally carried out by human intelligence, especially when the machines learn from data how to do those tasks. 

• Engineering biology: the application of rigorous engineering principles to the design of biological systems. 

• Advanced connectivity technologies: new infrastructure for digitised data and communications. 

• Semiconductors: a class of electronic materials with unique properties that sit at the heart of the technology we use every day. 

• Quantum technologies: devices and systems which rely on quantum mechanics, to provide capabilities that ‘classical’ machines cannot. 

These priority areas receive substantial government and private sector investment. This influences both research funding and academic job opportunities. Academics working in these sectors often have greater access to competitive grants, interdisciplinary collaborations, and policy engagement opportunities. For researchers aiming to establish a long-term career in UK academia, aligning with strategic sectors can enhance job security, funding prospects, and career progression.

6.8 The UK’s research agenda

The UK’s research agenda encompasses the strategic priorities and focus areas that guide public and private research efforts within the UK. It aligns with national objectives for economic growth, societal well-being, environmental sustainability, and global competitiveness in science and innovation. 

Research priorities are also shaped by organisations in the devolved nations, including the Scottish Funding Council (SFC), Medr (Wales), and the Department for the Economy in Northern Ireland, which support research and innovation within their respective higher education and research sectors.

Staying informed about the research agenda as it evolves helps academics position themselves for long-term success by ensuring their work remains relevant, fundable, and impactful within the UK academic ecosystem.

Key aspects include: 

6.9 Additional resources

7.1 Academic career paths

Academic careers in the UK follow three main pathways that staff can progress through.

Progressing from a PhD to a professorial position in UK academia is a long-term career journey. It requires demonstrating excellence in research, developing teaching experience, and showing success in securing funding and leadership roles. Individual careers vary depending on discipline, institution, and personal circumstances.

This section outlines typical stages, timelines, and what will be expected at each milestone.

For more information on recruitment and career progression, visit Section 8: How do academic recruitment and career progression work in the UK?

Job titles in UK academia

Job titles and structures can vary between institutions. Some universities have adopted titles such as “Associate Professor” in place of “Senior Lecturer” or “Reader”, which is closer to the terminology used in North America (see the table below for UK/US equivalent roles).

For further insights, see Anne Harrington’s article, The Same but Different: US vs. UK Higher Education, which explores the differences between these job titles. 

The Royal Society’ STEM career roadmap resource provides a comprehensive summary of roles in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) research sector and has been designed to support current and prospective researchers to explore the range of careers available.

1. Research and teaching pathway

This combines both research and teaching responsibilities. The standard career progression pathway would involve the following roles: 

2. Research-only pathway 

This is for academics focused exclusively on research, often within externally funded projects. The standard career progression pathway would involve the following roles: 

• Research Assistant: supports projects with research, data collection, and analysis. 

• (Postdoctoral) Research Associate/Fellow/Officer: conducts independent research and is usually performed by those with a PhD. 

• Senior/Principal Research Fellow/Officer: leads projects and secures funding. 

3. Teaching-only pathway 

Dedicated to delivering high-quality education. Positions include: 

• Teaching Fellow/Tutor: involved in curriculum delivery and development. 

• Senior Teaching Fellow / Principal Teaching Fellow: senior roles focusing on education leadership. 
• Professor (Teaching): recognises excellence in education.

7.2 Postdoctoral researcher (Postdoc)

Please refer to Section 3: How does funding and regulation work in UK academia? and Section 5: How do I pay for my research? to find out more about potential funding sources, as well as the differences between government funding bodies, grant-making charities, learned societies, and professional societies.

7.3 Lecturer

7.4 Senior Lecturer / Associate Professor

7.5 Reader (if applicable)

7.6 Professor

7.7 Additional resources

What is the recruitment process like in UK academia?

The recruitment process for academic positions in the UK is structured and competitive. While specific procedures vary between institutions, most follow these key stages: 

8.1 Job advertisement and application

Academic vacancies are typically advertised on university websites or on job websites.

Applicants are usually required to submit: 

• A tailored CV highlighting research, teaching, and administrative experience. 

• A cover letter or supporting statement, explaining how they meet the essential and desirable criteria. 

• A research statement (for research-intensive roles), outlining research achievements, future plans, and funding strategy. 

• A teaching statement (for teaching-focused or combined roles), detailing teaching philosophy, experience, and curriculum development. 

• References: candidates are typically asked to provide three references, though some universities only request them after shortlisting for a position. If you are an at-risk scholar and are unsure who to ask, you may be able to use your mentor as a referee; ask your organisation such as the Council for At-Risk Academics (Cara) to help identify suitable referees.

For research fellowships or grant-funded positions, additional documents such as funding records or details about impact may be required. 

8.2 Shortlisting 

Applications are reviewed by a selection panel consisting of senior academics, department heads, and representatives from human resources. They assess applications based on: 

• Research record: quality and quantity of publications, funding success, and impact. 

• Teaching experience: teaching approach, evidence of student engagement, and curriculum development. 

• Alignment with institutional strategy: how the applicant fits into the department’s priorities, REF (Research Excellence Framework) objectives, TEF (Teaching Excellence Framework) objectives, and long-term research themes. 

• Broader academic contributions: such as external collaborations, leadership, and outreach. 

Candidates who meet both essential and desirable criteria are more likely to be shortlisted. 

Universities that have signed up to the Disability Confident Employer scheme will offer an interview to any disabled person who meets the “minimum criteria” for a role and has indicated that they are disabled on their application form.

You can read more about the definition of disability on the GOV.UK website. 

8.3 Interview process 

Shortlisted candidates are invited to an interview, which generally consists of: 

How the Research Excellence Framework (REF) and Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF) relate to your research and teaching is also important to consider when preparing for an interview.

Read more about REF and TEF and how they can impact you when applying and interviewing for academic roles in the UK in Section 6: What is the long-term picture in UK higher education and research policy?

8.4 Offer and appointment 

Following interviews, the hiring panel ranks candidates based on their performance across all selection criteria. The final decision is made by: 

• The selection panel, which submits recommendations. 

• The Head of Department and senior university leadership, who approve the appointment.  

Successful candidates receive an offer, usually subject to: 

• Reference checks (some universities request these before interviews). 

• Salary negotiations (universities follow structured pay scales, but limited flexibility may exist based on experience and funding). 

• Visa sponsorship (for international candidates requiring work permits). 

• Probation period (typically three to five years for permanent academic roles). 

Some universities may also have a relocation scheme, which may cover some of the costs of moving for a job. Unsuccessful candidates may request feedback on their application and interview performance, but detailed feedback varies by institution. 

8.5 Other considerations during recruitment

• Internal candidates: some positions have internal applicants (postdocs, teaching fellows, or part-time lecturers) applying for promotions, which can increase competition for external applicants. 

• Diversity and inclusion: universities have specific targets for improving representation. Candidates may be asked to demonstrate their commitment to equality/ equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI). 

• Contract types and job security: many academic roles, especially postdocs and early-career lectureships, are on fixed-term contracts, requiring early-career researchers to frequently apply for new positions. 

8.6 Where can I find academic jobs?

Job opportunities are typically advertised on: 

8.7 Job assessment and academic progression

Academic promotions in the UK are heavily influenced by research outputs, external funding success, and teaching excellence. Two key national frameworks – the Research Excellence Framework (REF) and Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF) – play a significant role in university rankings and funding allocations. They shape institutional priorities and individual career progression (i.e. staff promotions). While the REF and TEF are institutionally focused, they can affect individuals because universities recruit and promote staff who enhance their research and teaching profiles. 

Read more about REF and TEF in Section 6: What is the long-term picture in UK higher education and research policy?

8.8 Transitioning to a job outside of academic research

What jobs outside academia are there? 

Researchers in the UK often move between academia, non-research roles within universities, and private industry, charities, or public sector bodies. If you wish to move from a job in academia to the private or public sector, there are various resources to help you find alternative career paths. PhD students and employees of universities can get support for their careers through institutional career services. 

• This Nature article, ‘why scientists need to market themselves,’ gives helpful tips for academics on how to make themselves more attractive to prospective employers. 
• The Vitae website also provides this helpful advice for thinking about options beyond academia. 

Applying for industry and public sector jobs 

The process of applying for non-academic jobs is not dissimilar to that of an academic position. Academics looking to transition to non-academic roles in the UK have several options and resources available to them. Here are some steps and tips: 

• Identify transferable skills: highlight skills such as research, data analysis, project management, and communication that are valuable in various industries. 

• Network: connect with professionals in your desired field through LinkedIn, academic conferences, and industry-led events. 

• Tailor your CV: customise your CV to emphasise relevant skills and experiences for the non-academic roles you are targeting. 

• Consider further training: depending on the industry, additional certifications or training might be beneficial. 

• Use job search platforms: websites like jobs.ac.uk offer listings for both academic and non-academic research roles. LinkedIn regularly advertises non-academic jobs.  

• Utilise your network: find mentors in your desired industry who can provide guidance and support. If you find a non-academic job you are interested in, contact relevant professionals within the organisation to learn more about the role and recruitment process.

• Be open to various roles: consider roles that may not be a perfect match but offer valuable experience and skills. 

Research Careers Outside Higher Education – jobs.ac.uk is a helpful page with more information about careers outside of academia. 

9.1 Visas and immigration

The UK Visas and Immigration (UKVI) department oversees visa applications and immigration. Detailed guidance is available on the official government website. If you are currently in employment, your human resources or immigration team may also be able to assist. You can also find out information about family visas on the UK government website. 

Common visa routes for academics

A third of university academic staff in the UK come from another country, according to the Higher Education Staff Statistics (HESA): UK 2022/2023 report. International academics moving to the UK can do so through the Global Talent Visa, which provides an immigration route for researchers and academics.  

The Skilled Worker route is also available for university employees.  

Other visa routes may be available, and the UK Visas and Immigration website provides further details on eligibility and application processes.  

Note that certain universities may reimburse new international staff for some of the fees associated with moving to the UK. If you think you might be eligible for any reimbursements, you should check with your new employer’s human resources department.

Academics moving to the UK should familiarise themselves with visa regulations and explore funding opportunities to support their research careers. 

The UK participates in Horizon Europe – the European Union’s (EU) key funding programme for research and innovation – through a special arrangement. But Brexit has complicated access to some EU funding schemes, affecting early-career researchers reliant on European grants. Moving between the UK and the EU for research positions has become more complex due to changes in visa requirements. While many UK academics continue to collaborate internationally, mobility between UK and EU institutions now requires additional work permits and funding considerations, including for UK academics and PhD graduates. The UK government website has the most up-to-date information to determine your right to work in the UK for EU, European Economic Area (EEA), and Swiss Citizens.

9.2 Academic culture and work-life balance

Workload differences across institutions

Academic contracts and teaching loads vary significantly between institutions, seniority levels, and roles. Research-intensive universities prioritise REF contributions and expect high-quality publication outputs – but they also offer more research time. Teaching-focused institutions have higher teaching responsibilities and loads. 

Read more about teaching loads in Section 4: How does teaching and learning work at UK universities?

Fixed term and permanent contracts

Many researchers are employed on fixed-term contracts. This is particularly the case for early-career academics, including postdocs and teaching fellows. These short-term positions often mean it is necessary to secure new roles every few years. This creates job insecurity, the need to relocate frequently, and financial instability. Lectureships and permanent teaching positions offer more stability but are highly competitive. 

Work-life balance and wellbeing

The demands of research, teaching, and securing funding contribute to long working hours. This is particularly true for early-career researchers. Workload expectations vary by discipline and institution, but academics often balance administrative responsibilities, student support, and research commitments alongside teaching. Some universities offer workload management policies and wellbeing initiatives. However, many academics report high stress levels due to job competition, grant pressures, and workload intensity. Burnout remains a common concern. Understanding these factors is crucial when considering career progression and the long-term sustainability of an academic career.

9.3 Employment rights, equality, and inclusion in academia 

Equality Act 2010

In the UK, the Equality Act 2010 is a law that protects people from discrimination based on protected characteristics. The protected characteristics are:

• Age
• Disability
• Gender reassignment
• Marriage and civil partnership
• Pregnancy and maternity
• Race
• Religion or belief
• Sex and sexual orientation

If you require advice on your rights, you can speak to Citizens Advice. Please note you do not need to be a UK citizen to go to Citizens Advice.

Career development and leadership for under-represented groups in academia 

There are a range of training opportunities available specifically for those from under-represented groups to help them progress in their academic careers.  

Some examples include Diversifying leadership training or Aurora.

9.4 Family support and parental leave

The law in the UK protects you against unfair treatment or dismissal because you have taken parental leave. Key information about parental leave includes:  

• Employees in the UK have the right to 52 weeks’ maternity leave with the right to return to work.  

• Parental leave pay entitlements can vary by institution but typically include 26 weeks of ordinary maternity leave and 26 weeks of additional maternity leave.  

• Most employers offer a combination of occupational maternity leave (full basic pay), statutory maternity pay, and unpaid leave. 

• Fathers can take paternity leave, typically up to a maximum of two weeks.  

• Parents may choose to take shared parental leave up to a maximum of 50 weeks.  

• Many employers require staff to have been working with them for a certain amount of time before they qualify for full parental pay.  

• During parental leave, you are entitled to keeping in touch days, which are explained on the Maternity Action website. 

• There are rights for people who experience miscarriage or baby loss.  

Check your employer’s parental leave policy for details on how many weeks you may receive and any eligibility requirements.  

For maternity, paternity, or shared parental leave, you must provide a MATB1 form (provided by your midwife or doctor) to your employer with a request for leave no later than 15 weeks before the expected start of the leave. This is usually just before your due date but can be earlier. 

The following links provide guidance on your rights in the UK to:

• maternity and paternity leave,
• shared parental leave, 
• and adoption leave.

9.5 Employee benefits and wellbeing support

Research leave

Some institutions may offer a semester or year-long research leave (i.e., sabbatical) after a certain number of years of service. Research leave is usually paid, but approval depends on eligibility, departmental capacity, and, in some instances, external funding.  

Academics must usually apply for research leave, outlining their research plan, expected outcomes, and a timeline.  

Policies vary, so you will need to ask about any department, school, and/or university guidelines on research leave to be sure about what options are available.

Pension schemes

Many pre-1992 higher education and research institutions in the UK offer a pension through the University Superannuation Scheme (USS).  

Post-1992 universities are members of the Teachers’ Pension Scheme (TPS).    

If you are employed by a UK university, rather than receiving a stipend, you will usually be enrolled in a workplace pension scheme. Under UK law, employers must automatically enrol eligible employees into a qualifying pension scheme and make contributions on their behalf. The specific scheme available will depend on your institution and role.

Institutional benefits

Universities in the UK often offer a range of employee benefits and support services, which may include:

Staff networks: Staff-led groups that provide support, networking, mentoring, and advocacy for communities such as international staff and/or students, disabled staff, LGBTQ+ staff, ethnic minority staff, parents and carers, and early-career researchers.

Enhanced sick pay: Many institutions provide occupational sick pay schemes that go beyond statutory sick pay, although eligibility and entitlements vary by employer.

Salary sacrifice schemes: These allow employees to exchange part of their salary for non-cash benefits, such as childcare support, cycle-to-work schemes, or additional pension contributions.

Employee Assistance Programmes (EAPs): Confidential support services offering counselling, mental health support, legal advice, financial guidance, and assistance with personal or work-related issues.

Occupational health services: Support for physical and mental wellbeing, workplace adjustments, and returning to work after illness or injury.

Flexible working arrangements: Opportunities for hybrid working, flexible hours, part-time working, compressed hours, or job-sharing, depending on the role and institutional policies.

Benefits and support services vary between institutions, so it is worth checking your employer’s policies or speaking to your human resources department to understand what is available.

9.6 Everyday life in the UK: finances and public services

National Insurance number

To work in the UK and to access the social security system, you need a National Insurance (NI) number. This ensures that your contributions to taxes and social security are recorded correctly. 

More information can be found on the Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) website. 

If you do not have one, you can apply for one through the UK Government’s official process. 

It is important to note that the UK does not use a universal identification number. The NI number serves this specific purpose in relation to employment and benefits.

Tax

The UK’s tax authority is HM’s Revenue & Customs (HMRC). The tax year runs from 6 April to 5 April the following year.  

Understanding your tax obligations, including income tax and National Insurance contributions, is essential. HMRC provides comprehensive information and services for taxpayers on their website.  

There will also be differences in the taxes you need to pay based on where you live. Scotland, for example, has its own income tax bands, and local councils also have their own taxes (called “rates” in Northern Ireland) to pay, though some people – including many students – can apply for an exemption.

Opening a bank account 

To manage your finances, opening a UK bank account is advisable. You will typically need proof of identity (such as a passport) and proof of address (like a utility bill).  

Some banks offer accounts tailored for newcomers to the country.  

For guidance, visit the UK government’s MoneyHelper website. 

Jobcentre Plus

Jobcentre Plus is a government agency offering employment services and benefits support. They assist with job searches, provide career advice, and administer certain benefits payments.  

Find your nearest Jobcentre Plus and access their services through their official website.

Setting up utilities and communication services 

Arranging utilities is a priority when moving into a new home. This includes setting up electricity, gas, water, internet, and phone services.  

The UK has a competitive market, allowing you to choose from various providers. Accredited comparison websites can help you find the best deals.  

For information on energy suppliers, consult Ofgem, the energy regulator. 

TV licence

In the UK, watching live television or using the BBC iPlayer requires a TV licence. This applies regardless of the device you use. The annual fee funds public broadcasting services.

You can purchase a licence and find more details on the TV Licensing website. 

More information on working in the UK is available on the EURAXESS website, including taxes, pensions and social welfare rights, and recognition of qualifications.

9.7 Everyday life in the UK: healthcare

Healthcare system 

The UK’s National Health Service (NHS) provides free healthcare at the point of use for residents. Services are primarily accessed through General Practitioners (GPs), who serve as the first point of contact for medical concerns and can refer patients to specialists if necessary. It is important to note, however, that health is a devolved matter in the UK, so there are important differences (e.g., whether you will need to pay for prescriptions) between how healthcare works in England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.  For non-emergency medical advice, you can call 111 or visit the NHS 111 online service. 

For a medical emergency, call 999.

The NHS website provides a comprehensive list of relevant medical services in the UK.

Registering with a GP

To access healthcare services, register with a local GP practice.

You can find nearby GP surgeries using the NHS service finder.  

Registration typically requires proof of identity and address. Once registered, you will receive an NHS number, which is your unique identifier within the health system. 

Dental care

Dental services in the UK are offered through both NHS and private practices. NHS dental care is subsidised, but patients usually pay a portion of the treatment cost. Registering with an NHS dentist can make dental care more affordable.

To find an NHS dentist accepting new patients, use the NHS dentist finder.

9.8 Everyday life in the UK: childcare and education

Childcare

There is a range of options for childcare in the UK, but the most common are nursery schools and registered childminders.  

You may be entitled to help with childcare costs or tax-free childcare. You can find out if this is the case by filling out the government childcare calculator. 

• In England, children of working parents aged between nine months and four years old may be able to get free childcare.  

• In Scotland, children from the age of two can access childcare in certain situations. From three years old, all children are eligible for 30 hours a week of free childcare during term time, regardless of their parents’ working status.  

• In Wales, parents of children aged three to four years old can also apply for up to 30 hours a week of childcare and early education.  

• In Northern Ireland, working parents with children under 12 years old (or under 17 if they are disabled) can get tax-free childcare. 

Family hubs

In some parts of England, you will find Family Hubs that can provide support for families with young children (and sometimes older children as well).  

The services they offer are different in different parts of the country, but you can search for any nearby family hubs in your area on the government website search tool. 

School system

The UK offers free state education to children aged four to 18, but formal education is compulsory from age five (four in Northern Ireland) until age 16. After turning 16, young people must still continue in education or training — such as a sixth form, college, or apprenticeship — until they turn 18.

England and Wales

Note: In a small number of areas in England, a three-tier system operates, consisting of first schools, middle schools (for children aged nine to 13) and upper schools (for children ages 13 to 19), rather than the more common primary and secondary school structure.

There are many types of schools and nurseries in England and Wales, including fee-paying schools, faith schools, and those run by academies and local authorities.

You can find those available through your local authority in your area via your local council. 

Scotland

In Scotland there are only two types of schools: those run by your council and those that are privately funded. Scotland does not have an academy system or grammar schools (although some schools may still go by these names).

Northern Ireland

There are several types of schools in Northern Ireland, including controlled, maintained, integrated, and grammar schools. These are overseen by the Education Authority.

Minority language education

State-funded education through the medium of a language other than English is available in three UK nations: Scottish Gaelic in Scotland, Welsh in Wales, and Irish in Northern Ireland. Minority languages education options may vary depending on where you live, but often include: 

• Early years provision to support young children’s language learning from an early age. 

• School provision through immersion (where students are taught in the target language for most of the time) or second language programmes (where most of the education is in English and the target language is taught as a subject).  

• Second language classes for adults.  

To better understand what opportunities are available to you and your family is by speaking to your local authority/council/district. 

10.1 Glossary

10.2 Common acronyms